In his own lifetime Galileo was the centre of violent controversy; but the scientific dust has
long since settled, and today we can see even his famous clash with the Inquisition in something
like its proper perspective. But, in contrast, it is only in modern times that Galileo has become
a problem child for historians of science. The old view of Galileo was delightfully uncomplicated.
He was, above all, a man who experimented: who despised the prejudices and book learning of the
Aristotelians, who put his questions to nature instead of to the ancients, and who drew his
conclusions fearlessly. He had been the first to turn a telescope to the sky, and he had seen their
evidence enough to overthrow Aristotle and Ptolemy together. He was the man who climbed the
Leaning Tower of Pisa and dropped various weights from the top, who rolled balls down inclined
planes, and then generalized the results of his many experiments into the famous law of free fall.
But a closer study of the evidence, supported by a deeper sense of the period, and particularly by
a new consciousness of the philosophical undercurrents in the scientific revolution, has profoundly
modified this view of Galileo. Today, although the old Galileo lives on in many popular writings,
among historians of science a new and more sophisticated picture has emerged. At the same time our
sympathy for Galileo's opponents has grown somewhat. His telescopic observations are justly
immortal; they aroused great interest at the time, they had important theoretical consequences,
and they provided a striking demonstration of the potentialities hidden in instruments and
apparatus. But can we blame those who looked and failed to see what Galileo saw, if we remember
that to use a telescope at the limit of its powers calls for long experience and intimate
familiarity with one's instrument? Was the philosopher who refused to look through Galileo's
telescope more culpable than those who alleged that the spiral nebulae observed with
Lord Rosse's great telescope in the 1840s were scratches left by the grinder? We can perhaps
forgive those who said the moons of Jupiter were produced by Galileo's spyglass if we recall
that in his day, as for centuries before, curved glass was the popular contrivance for producing
not truth but illusion, untruth; and if a single curved glass would distort nature, how much more
would a pair of them?